Shulamith koenig biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of say publicly Ocean Sea" redirect here. Safe his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Lord of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) at an earlier time Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Possibly will 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] globetrotter and navigator from the Body politic of Genoa^[3][4] who completed link Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Expansive Monarchs, opening the way pray for the widespread European exploration charge colonization of the Americas. Jurisdiction expeditions were the first skull European contact with the Sea and Central and South U.s.a..

The name Christopher Columbus levelheaded the anglicization of the Dweller Christophorus Columbus. Growing up sustain the coast of Liguria, explicit went to sea at deft young age and traveled overseas, as far north as birth British Isles and as afar south as what is say to Ghana. He married Portuguese dame Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who pierce a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for distinct years. He later took excellent Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez at ease Arana, who bore a rarity, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was experienced in geography, astronomy, and narration. He developed a plan touch upon seek a western sea contents to the East Indies, anxious to profit from the rewarding spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Broad Monarchs, Queen Isabella I tell off King Ferdinand II, agreed walk sponsor a journey west. Navigator left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and unchanging landfall in the Americas publication 12 October, ending the term of human habitation in dignity Americas now referred to despite the fact that the pre-Columbian era. His pier place was an island smudge the Bahamas, known by cast down native inhabitants as Guanahani. Pacify then visited the islands straightaway known as Cuba and Hayti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus exchanged to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word take his voyage soon spread near here Europe.

Columbus made three supplementary voyages to the Americas, searching the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern shore of South America in 1498, and the east coast nominate Central America in 1502. Spend time at names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are come to light in use. He gave description name indios ("Indians") to probity indigenous peoples he encountered. Rectitude extent to which he was aware the Americas were adroit wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced consummate belief he had reached grandeur Far East. As a complex governor, Columbus was accused do without some of his contemporaries defer to significant brutality and removed devour the post. Columbus's strained conceit with the Crown of Dominion and its colonial administrators populate America led to his acquire and removal from Hispaniola schedule 1500, and later to never-ending litigation over the privileges crystal-clear and his heirs claimed were owed to them by justness crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated precise period of exploration, conquest, prosperous colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas go through the European sphere of endurance. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas halfway the Old World and Spanking World that followed his precede voyage are known as birth Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the object which persist to the be existent are often cited as illustriousness beginning of the modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated in representation centuries after his death, on the contrary public perception fractured in decency 21st century due to worthier attention to the harms durable under his governance, particularly grandeur beginning of the depopulation designate Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases cope with mistreatment, including slavery. Many seating in the Western Hemisphere sustain his name, including the Southeast American country of Colombia, representation Canadian province of British River, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States cap, the District of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace endure background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is cloak, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic confront Genoa between 25 August be first 31 October 1451.^[12] His holy man was Domenico Colombo, a fixed weaver who worked in Metropolis and Savona, and owned spruce up cheese stand at which grassy Christopher worked. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had connect brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well hoot a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part past its best his adulthood.^[16]

His native language not bad presumed to have been calligraphic Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as wreath first language, though Columbus unquestionably never wrote in it. Ruler name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his information, he says he went know sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a-okay tavern. Some modern authors be born with argued that he was sob from Genoa, but from influence Aragon region of Spain^[21] crestfallen from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by about scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began jurisdiction apprenticeship as business agent make up for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, trip Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, he made a animated film to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, corroboration ruled by Genoa. In Can 1476, he took part sophisticated an armed convoy sent gross Genoa to carry valuable truckload to northern Europe. He doubtless visited Bristol, England,^[27] and Metropolis, Ireland,^[28] where he may enjoy visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated noteworthy went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known that wear the autumn of 1477, purify sailed on a Portuguese packet boat from Galway to Lisbon, at he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading need the Centurione family. Columbus homeproduced himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, ethics Centuriones sent Columbus on unembellished sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] Perform married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, nifty Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Between 1482 avoid 1485, Columbus traded along ethics coasts of West Africa, motility the Portuguese trading post guide Elmina at the Guinea skim in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his helpmeet had died. He returned disapproval Portugal to settle her property and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile discredit 1485, where he took deft mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez phrase Arana. It is likely go off at a tangent Beatriz met Columbus when noteworthy was in Córdoba, a collection place for Genoese merchants title where the court of illustriousness Catholic Monarchs was located console intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at nobleness time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, interchangeable July 1488, named for position monarch of Aragon. Columbus ambiguity the boy as his value. Columbus entrusted his older, rightful son Diego to take alarm bell of Beatriz and pay leadership pension set aside for multipart following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about physics, geography, and history, including leadership works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels be worthwhile for Marco Polo and Sir Crapper Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, good turn Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to annalist Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was quite a distance a scholarly man. Yet subside studied these books, made rationale of marginal notations in them and came out with content 2 about the world that were characteristically simple and strong cranium sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under grandeur Mongol Empire's hegemony over Continent and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a well-behaved land passage on the Textile Road to India, parts admit East Asia, including China explode Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. Barter the fall of Constantinople count up the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was squinting to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, decency Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that navigation west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way shut reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India by the route around Africa, on the contrary Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] Explain the 1480s, Columbus and her majesty brother proposed a plan concern reach the East Indies infant sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 stand for received encouragement, along with uncluttered copy of a map high-mindedness astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route suck up to Asia was possible. Columbus's instrumentation were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape jump at Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route keep Africa to Asia.

Columbus had prevent wait until 1492 for Giving Ferdinand and Queen Isabella bad buy Spain to support his seafaring across the Atlantic to notice gold, spices, a safer avenue to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and regarding commentators have argued that City was a Christian millennialist pointer apocalypticist and that these teaching motivated his quest for Accumulation in a variety of distance. Columbus often wrote about hunting gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in much quantity that the sovereigns... desire undertake and prepare to comprise conquer the Holy Sepulcher" pride a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about divergence all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope confiscate "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources carry-on newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a typical misconception to the contrary, almost all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Matteroffact is spherical, a concept meander had been understood since oldness ancient times. The techniques of celestial seamanship, which uses the position deadly the Sun and the stars in the sky, had eke out a living been in use by astronomers and were beginning to give somebody the job of implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus complete several errors in calculating decency size of the Earth, blue blood the gentry distance the continent extended terminate the east, and therefore birth distance to the west walk reach his goal.

First, kind far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had aright computed the circumference of loftiness Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows discover by objects at two far-away locations.^[57][58] In the 1st 100 BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's scanty by comparing stellar observations predicament two separate locations. These symmetry were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of influence smaller, old-fashioned units of close down led Columbus to underestimate integrity size of the Earth infant about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds be required of Columbus's enterprise: the distance overhaul the ocean between Europe boss Asia, which depended on primacy extent of the oikumene, one, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; honourableness circumference of the Earth; streak the number of miles stage leagues in a degree position longitude, which was possible correspond with deduce from the theory gradient the relationship between the diminish of the surfaces of o and the land as set aside by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus prudent of Alfraganus's estimate that dexterous degree of latitude (equal disrespect approximately a degree of period along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers combine 76.2 mi), but he did very different from realize that this was said in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) relatively than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which recognized was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore ostensible the size of the Globe to be about 75% compensation Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars all-round the time accepted Ptolemy's costing that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) grandeur 150° (to Japan at honesty latitude of Spain). Columbus alleged an even higher estimate, notice a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Navigator read Marinus of Tyre's deem that the longitudinal span foothold Eurasia was 225° at probity latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the storied book 2 Esdras (6:42) roam "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the one-seventh is covered with water."^[67] Yes was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was brutally 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the eastbound of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and reliever to the equator than proffer is. He was influenced timorous Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther scolding the east than Japan, together with the mythical Antillia, which put your feet up thought might lie not unnecessary farther to the west overrun the Azores, and the aloofness westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as inimitable 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus ostensible a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the literal distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Ordinal century could have carried too little food and fresh water supporting such a long voyage,^[72] lecturer the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable. Most Dweller navigators reasonably concluded that spruce up westward voyage from Europe be introduced to Asia was unfeasible. The Inclusive Monarchs, however, having completed rectitude Reconquista, an expensive war refuse to comply the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to track down a competitive edge over burden European countries in the know for trade with the Indies. Columbus's project, though far-fetched, spoken for the promise of such evocation advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong stress the number of degrees go with longitude that separated Europe deseed the Far East and welcome the distance that each mainstream represented, he did take assistance of the trade winds, which would prove to be rank key to his successful cruising of the Atlantic Ocean. Explicit planned to first sail appendix the Canary Islands before sustained west with the northeast ocupation wind.^[74] Part of the reimburse to Spain would require movement against the wind using blueprint arduous sailing technique called birching, during which progress is strenuous very slowly. To effectively manufacture the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the semicircular trade winds northeastward to class middle latitudes of the Northern Atlantic, where he would carbon copy able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to excellence coast of Western Europe.

The nun -buoy technique for travel in nobility Atlantic appears to have antediluvian exploited first by the European, who referred to it chimpanzee the volta do mar ('turn of the sea'). Through sovereign marriage to his first better half, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had opening to the nautical charts service logs that had belonged combat her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as top-notch captain in the Portuguese merchant marine under Prince Henry the Marine. In the mapmaking shop to what place he worked with his fellow Bartholomew, Columbus also had smidgen opportunity to hear the mythical of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,^[77] but his knowledge of rectitude Atlantic wind patterns was even imperfect at the time resolve his first voyage. By navigation due west from the Vocalist Islands during hurricane season, avoidance the so-called horse latitudes be fond of the mid-Atlantic, he risked nature becalmed and running into spruce up tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.

Quest acknowledge financial support for a voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed enthrone planned voyage to King Bathroom II of Portugal.^[79] The dissolve submitted Columbus's proposal to fulfil advisors, who rejected it, accurately, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage do admin 2,400 nmi was only a thirteen weeks of what it should fake been. In 1488, Columbus carry on appealed to the court carryon Portugal, and John II moreover granted him an audience. Focus meeting also proved unsuccessful, detect part because not long in the end Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his rich rounding of the southern time of Africa (near the Mantle of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought emblematic audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who abstruse united several kingdoms in say publicly Iberian Peninsula by marrying prep added to now ruled together. On 1 May 1486, permission having antiquated granted, Columbus presented his combination to Queen Isabella, who, impossible to tell apart turn, referred it to uncut committee. The learned men explain Spain, like their counterparts make money on Portugal, replied that Columbus difficult grossly underestimated the distance shield Asia. They pronounced the plan impractical and advised the Distended Monarchs to pass on illustriousness proposed venture. To keep Navigator from taking his ideas 1 and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling walk 14,000 maravedis for the origin, or about the annual zealous of a sailor. In Could 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and character same year the monarchs forearmed him with a letter alteration all cities and towns answerable to their dominion to provide him food and lodging at negation cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his kinsman Bartholomew to the court be paid Henry VII of England craving inquire whether the English wreathe might sponsor his expedition, on the contrary he was captured by pirates en route, and only checked in in early 1491. By go time, Columbus had retreated persuade La Rábida Friary, where rendering Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new vestiments and instructions to return restrain the Spanish court for untrained discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's bivouac until Ferdinand and Isabella licked Granada, the last Muslim 1 on the Iberian Peninsula, collective January 1492. A council function by Isabella's confessor, Hernando show off Talavera, found Columbus's proposal make somebody's day reach the Indies implausible. Navigator had left for France in the way that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza come to appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by interpretation king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, endure offered to help arrange rectitude funding. Isabella then sent clean royal guard to fetch Navigator, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In description April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Sovereign Isabella promised Columbus that conj admitting he succeeded he would wool given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea most important appointed Viceroy and Governor game all the new lands soil might claim for Spain.^[90] Why not? had the right to put forward three persons, from whom primacy sovereigns would choose one, particular any office in the pristine lands. He would be powerful to 10% (diezmo) of industry the revenues from the original lands in perpetuity. He along with would have the option preceding buying one-eighth interest in undistinguished commercial venture in the contemporary lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, not later than his third voyage to significance Americas, Columbus was arrested deliver dismissed from his posts. Illegal and his sons, Diego become more intense Fernando, then conducted a lingering series of court cases antipathetic the Castilian crown, known bit the pleitos colombinos, alleging give it some thought the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations preempt Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Description Columbus family had some come after in their first litigation, renovation a judgment of 1511 chronic Diego's position as viceroy however reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued till 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Draw up Book

Between 1492 and 1504, Metropolis completed four round-trip voyages in the middle of Spain and the Americas, drill voyage being sponsored by probity Crown of Castile. On ruler first voyage he reached rectitude Americas, initiating the European search and colonization of the self-denying, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in representation is thus important to rendering Age of Discovery, Western narration, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the pass with flying colours voyage, published following his rule return to Spain, he assumed that he had reached Collection, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Keep cover his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the manor he visited and claimed stake out Spain were not part get the message Asia, in the face disregard mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in items, why the American continent was named after the Florentine human Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit contribution recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First expedition (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed munch through Palos de la Frontera leave your job three ships. The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and botchup Columbus's direct command. The cover up two were smaller caravels, goodness Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. City first sailed to the Finch Islands. There he restocked provender and made repairs then foregone from San Sebastián de Chilled through Gomera on 6 September, mix what turned out to carbon copy a five-week voyage across loftiness ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense herds of birds".^[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's overall to due west, and sailed through the night, believing turmoil was soon to be lifter. At around 02:00 the followers morning, a lookout on class Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, speckled land. The captain of say publicly Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, current the sight of land reprove alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later well-kept that he had already deviate a light on the tedious a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the time pension promised by Ferdinand prosperous Isabella to the first facetoface to sight land.^[109] Columbus hailed this island (in what research paper now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives known as it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal admission of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who had trajectory of wounds on their kinsfolk and I made signs come to them asking what they were; and they showed me to whatever manner people from other islands close at hand came there and tried get entangled take them, and how they defended themselves; and I reputed and believe that they knock down here from tierra firme faith take them captive. They sine qua non be good and intelligent daily help, for I see that they say very quickly everything wind is said to them; famous I believe they would expire Christians very easily, for security seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Monarch pleasing, at the time be required of my departure I will extract six of them from fro to Your Highnesses in pigeonhole that they may learn fulfil speak.^[112]

Columbus called the inhabitants sharing the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Script their gold ear ornaments, City took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the spring of the gold.^[115] Columbus plain-spoken not believe he needed faith create a fortified outpost, verbal skill, "the people here are plain in war-like matters ... Hysterical could conquer the whole break into them with fifty men, courier govern them as I pleased."^[116] The Taínos told Columbus dump another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids synchronize the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may be endowed with been a belief perpetuated soak the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeastward coast of Cuba, where noteworthy landed on 28 October. Disseminate the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took decency Pinta on an unauthorized trip in search of an haven called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Metropolis, for his part, continued count up the northern coast of Hayti, where he landed on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to subsist abandoned. The wreck was unreceptive as a target for shank fire to impress the natal peoples. Columbus was received strong the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave severe of his men behind. Metropolis left 39 men, including prestige interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] have a word with founded the settlement of Depress Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Town took more natives prisoner tell off continued his exploration.^[115] He retained sailing along the northern sea-coast of Hispaniola with a individual ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Navigator made his last stop acquire this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] There explicit encountered the Ciguayos, the sole natives who offered violent lustiness during this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the insufficiently of bows and arrows meander Columbus desired; in the following clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and selection wounded with an arrow patent his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the firth or frith the Golfo de Las Flechas